Background The Chinese Constitution states that it guarantees freedom of religion. Because many Han Chinese do not consider their spiritual beliefs and practices to be a "religion" and do not feel that they must practice any one of them exclusively, it is difficult to gather clear and reliable statistics. In the early 20th century, reform-minded officials and intellectuals attacked all religions as "superstitious", and since 1949, China has been governed by the Communist Party of China, an atheist institution that prohibits party members from practicing religion while in office. [392], China has a history of schools of thought not relying upon conceptions of an absolute, or putting absolutes into question. No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion. [307]:68, 70–73, 167–168 Throughout the Tang period, Taoism itself developed elements drawn from Buddhism, including monasticism, vegetarianism, abstention from alcohol, and the doctrine of emptiness. Chinese vernacular ritual masters, also referred to as practitioners of Faism (法教 Fǎjiào, "rites/laws' traditions"),[298] also named Folk Taoism (民间道教 Mínjiàn Dàojiào), or "Red Taoism" (in southeast China and Taiwan), are orders of priests that operate within the Chinese folk religion but outside any institution of official Taoism. New regulations that went into effect in early 2020 require religious groups to accept and spread CCP ideology and values. Since China’s opening and reform in the 1980s, the party has been tolerant of, and tacitly approved, the rise in Buddhist practice. [294] Taoist schools traditionally feature reverence for Laozi, immortals or ancestors, along with a variety of rituals for divination and exorcism, and techniques for achieving ecstasy, longevity or immortality. [378]:136–137 Remains of Hindu temples have also been discovered in Xinjiang, and they are of an earlier date than those in southeast China. [307]:189–190, 268–269 Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living, and Chinese officials questioned how monasticism and personal attainment of Nirvana benefited the empire. ", which has involved "destroying crosses, burning bibles, shutting churches and ordering followers to sign papers renouncing their faith".[107]. In the early twenty-first century there has been increasing official recognition of Confucianism and Chinese folk religion as part of China's cultural inheritance. The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and may also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism, including Confucian thought. [270], Broadly speaking, however, scholars agree that Confucianism may be also defined as an ethico-political system, developed from the teachings of the philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE). A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion", "Religions & Christianity in Today's China", "The Politics of Legitimation and the Revival of Popular Religion in Shaanbei, North-Central China", "Towards the City! The Jesuits brought Western sciences, becoming advisers to the imperial court on astronomy, taught mathematics and mechanics, but also adapted Chinese religious ideas such as admiration for Confucius and ancestor veneration into the religious doctrine they taught in China. Taoism and Confucianism are two examples of philosophical beliefs in China that also carry a religious element. This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter. Liang Shuming, a philosopher of the May Fourth Movement, wrote that Confucianism "functioned as a religion without actually being one". Scholar Valerie Hansen argues that the City God is not a homegrown cult, but has its prototype in the Indian Vaiśravaṇa as a guardian deity. The first, "spirit", is in the sense of "human spirit" or "psyche". Christianity and Islam arrived in China in the 7th century. [319] Soka Gakkai members in China are organised in the form of the house church, as they "meet quietly in small groups in the homes of other members", with little interference from the government. They share elements that go back to the 4th century BCE and to the prehistoric culture of China, such as the School of Yin and Yang and the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi. In earlier China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or ascetics who did not participate in political life. [90] Sun Yat-sen, the first president of the Republic of China, and his successor Chiang Kai-shek, were both Christians. Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanid dynasty which lasted until 651, when Persia was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate. The Zhuang religion is intertwined with Taoism. At the time it was rare for the Chinese to create a character for a foreign religion, and this is an evidence of the effect of Zoroastrians in Tang Chinese society.[388]:149. [174] Chinese religions, in general, do not place as much emphasis as Christianity does on exclusivity and doctrine. Rituals may be performed by government officials, family elders, popular ritual masters and Taoists, the latter cultivating local gods to centre the forces of the universe upon a particular locality. Overview and Acknowledgements Why and How the Reports are Prepared. Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese culture over the course of the centuries, and Taoists (Chinese: 道士; pinyin: dàoshi, "masters of the Tao") usually take care to mark the distinction between their ritual tradition and those of vernacular orders which are not recognised as Taoist. [133] In 2018, the government published a report saying that there are over 44 million Christians (Protestant: 38M, Catholic: 6M) in China. [317]:40 Cultural critiques point to the fact that Shin Buddhist clerics may marry and eat meat; modern Chinese Shin Buddhist groups, however, tend to follow the norms of celibacy and vegetarianism of Chinese Buddhism. [41] As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of moral decline. [185], Tian 天 ("Heaven" or "Sky") is the idea of absolute principle or God manifesting as the northern culmen and starry vault of the skies in Chinese common religion and philosophy. Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the state of meditation that participants enter prior to engage in the ritual acts. [378]:133–134 According to the Tamil text Śaivāgama of Pashupata Shaivism, two of the eighteen siddha of southern Shaktism, Bogar and Pulipani, were ethnically Chinese. [378]:135, Hindu texts were translated into Chinese, including a large number of Indian Tantric texts and the Vedas, which are known in Chinese as the Minglun or Zhilun, or through phonetic transliteration as the Weituo, Feituo or Pituo. Most of them left China after the war, the rest relocating prior to, or immediately after, the establishment of the People's Republic. At its height, the group was believed to have as many as seventy million followers; Freedom House estimates that seven to twenty million people continue to practice despite nearly two decades of persecution. Although a lower 215 million, or 16% said they "believed in the existence" of ancestral spirits. [279] In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people, a purpose achievable through a standardisation and development of doctrines, rituals, organisations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organisations. What to Know About China’s New Laws, State Administration for Religious Affairs, tightening of CCP control over civil society, The Souls of China: The Return of Religion After Mao, Religion and Authoritarianism: Cooperation, Conflict, and the Consequences, 2019 Report on International Religious Freedom, analyzes China’s religious revival, repression, and resistance. Commercial travel opened China to influences from foreign cultures. of positive theology) in character, while professional Taoism as "kenotic" and "apophatic" (i.e. This tradition includes veneration of forces of nature and ancestors, exorcism of harmful forces, and a belief that a rational order structures the universe, and such order may be influenced by human beings and their rulers. The U.S. State Department’s 2019 Report on International Religious Freedom provides an overview of the limitations to freedom of religion in China. They did not proselytise among Chinese, and from this period there are only two known fragments of Zoroastrian literature, both in Sogdian language. Separately, a 2012 Pew Research Center report found that more than 294 million people, or 21 percent of China’s population, practice folk religions. item 2 The State Religion of China: By Inquirer by Anonymous (English) Paperback Book F 1 - The State Religion of China: By Inquirer by Anonymous (English) Paperback Book F. $16.91. Christianity existed in China as early as the 7th century, living multiple cycles of significant presence for centuries, then disappearing for other centuries, and then being re-introduced by foreign missionaries. [390] Monks were also beaten or killed. However, Buddhism survived the persecutions and regained a place in the Chinese society over the following centuries. The folk religion of northeast China (Manchuria) has unique characteristics deriving from the interaction of Han religion with Tungus and Manchu shamanisms; these include the practice of chūmǎxiān (出马仙 "riding for the immortals"), the worship of Fox Gods and other zoomorphic deities, and of the Great Lord of the Three Foxes (胡三太爷 Húsān Tàiyé) and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes (胡三太奶 Húsān Tàinǎi) usually positioned at the head of pantheons. In each city, the respective City God is embodied by one or more historical personages, native of the city itself, who distinguished themselves by extraordinary attainments. The populations surveyed were those of the provinces of. [343]:14 Qiang people believe in an overarching God, called Mubyasei ("God of Heaven"), which is related with the Chinese concept of Tian and clearly identified by the Qiang with the Taoist-originated Jade Deity. What Is the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)? China has the world’s largest Buddhist population, with an estimated 185–250 million practitioners, according to Freedom House. [200], By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) the various sources of Taoism coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organisations and orders of ritualists. [344]:140–144, Religious ceremonies and rituals are directed by priests called duāngōng in Chinese. Note that the title of "Taoist", in common Chinese usage, is generally attributed only to the, CFPS 2014 surveyed predominantly people of, The main axis of the Taoist Temple of Fortune and Longevity (, These numerical results for practitioners of the folk religions exclude those who identified with one of the institutional religions, even the 173 million folk Taoists. This designation remained in effect until 1991. The State Council, the government’s administrative authority, passed regulations on religious affairs, which took effect in February 2018, to allow state-registered religious organizations to possess property, publish literature, train and approve clergy, and collect donations. [359], Christianity, especially in its Protestant form, gained momentum in China between the 1980s and the 1990s, but, in the following years, folk religion recovered more rapidly and in greater numbers than Christianity (or Buddhism). The report cited over one million cases of religious persecution in 2018. The government recognizes five official religions – Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism. "Religion in a State Society: China" by Myron Cohen (Asia for Educators, Columbia University): a brief overview focusing on official religion and popular religion in relation to the state; originally in Myron Cohen, ed., Asia: Case Studies in the Social Sciences (1992). [277] The principle of Heaven (Li or Dao) is the order of the creation and the source of divine authority, monistic in its structure. [253] They generally emerged from the common religion but are separate from the lineage cults of ancestors and progenitors, as well as from the communal worship of deities of village temples, neighbourhood, corporation, or national temples. The expansion of Buddhism reached its peak during the Tang dynasty, in the 9th century, when Buddhist monasteries had become very rich and powerful. Their data are mostly ungrounded or manipulated through undue interpretations, as "survey results do not support the authors' assertions". The Three-Self Patriotic Movement institutionalised Protestant churches in official organisations that renounced foreign funding and foreign control as imperialist. Many children of those who are detained are placed in boarding schools, where they study Mandarin and CCP ideology, according to a 2019 U.S. government report. [303], In the Shang and later Zhou dynasty (~1046 BCE–256 BCE), shamans had an important role in the political hierarchy, and were represented institutionally by the Ministry of Rites (大宗拍). Some of the basic Confucian ethical and practical concepts include rén, yì, lǐ, and zhì. [122] It found that the proportion of male believers was higher than the average among folk religious people, Taoists, and Catholics, while it was lower than the average among Protestants. [280], In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established[279] and guoxue ("national learning") started to be implemented in public schools. The government of China asserts that the present (11th) incarnation of the Panchen Lama is Gyancain Norbu, while the 14th Dalai Lama asserted in 1995 that it was Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, who from that year has been detained by the Chinese government and never seen in public. [125] The definition of "Taoist" is complicated by the fact that many folk sects of salvation and their members began to be registered as branches of the Taoist association in the 1990s. Russian Orthodoxy was introduced in 1715, and Protestant missions began entering China in 1807. International human rights groups, scholars of religion, and Chinese human rights lawyers have questioned such designations, criticizing the Chinese government for harsh repression against believers. Duāngōng are the custodians of Qiang theology, history and mythology. According to demographic analyses, approximately 13% of the population of China claims a loose affiliation with Taoist practices, while self-proclaimed "Taoists" (a title traditionally attributed only to the daoshi, i.e. [99][100] The government founded the Confucius Institute in 2004 to promote Chinese culture. Though Buddhism originated in India, it has a long history and tradition in China and today is the country’s largest institutionalized religion. From the central sulde there are strings that hold tied light blue pieces of cloth with a few white ones. Moreover, the Party-State has engineered the revival of Confucianism, which is not considered a religion by the authorities but nonetheless has a religious dimension. Temples were widely appropriated, destroyed, or used for schools. [39] Chinese thinkers, faced with this challenge to legitimacy, diverged in a "Hundred Schools of Thought", each proposing its own theories for the reconstruction of the Zhou moral order. [332] Bonpo ("believers of Bon") claim that the word bon means "truth" and "reality". Only religious groups belonging to the five state-sanctioned “patriotic religious associations” representing these religions are permitted to register with the government and officially permitted to hold worship services. In the Han period, the philosophical concern was especially the crucial role of the human being on earth, completing the cosmological trinity of Heaven-Earth-humanity (天地人 Tiāndìrén). [292] Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly strong in the state of Chu. The identities of descent-based groups are molded by stories, written genealogies (zupu, "books of ancestors"), temple activities, and village theatre which link them to history. [303] Shamanism is viewed by many scholars as the foundation for the emergence of civilisation, and the shaman as "teacher and spirit" of peoples. [222], The cults of gods and ancestors that in recent (originally Western) literature have been classified as "Chinese popular religion", traditionally neither have a common name nor are considered zōngjiào ("doctrines"). The Present Conditions of Religion in China China is a country with a great diversity of religious beliefs. According to a … [395] Further, he considered that cause-and-effect relationships claimed to be evidence of karma were merely the result of coincidence and bias. In 2010, the Pew Research Center estimated [PDF] that there were sixty-seven million Christians in China, roughly 5 percent of the total population, and, of these, fifty-eight million were Protestant, including both state-sanctioned and independent churches. Publication Year. [19], Despite this great diversity, all experiences of Chinese religion have a common theological core that may be summarised in four cosmological and moral concepts:[238] Tian (天), Heaven, the "transcendently immanent" source of moral meaning; qi (气), the breath or energy–matter that animates the universe; jingzu (敬祖), the veneration of ancestors; and bao ying (报应), moral reciprocity; together with two traditional concepts of fate and meaning:[239] ming yun (命运), the personal destiny or burgeoning; and yuan fen (缘分), "fateful coincidence",[240] good and bad chances and potential relationships. Confucius conceived these qualities as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony. [388]:150 During the great purge of foreign religions under Emperor Wuzong of Tang also Zoroastrianism was target of suppression. [330] Since the late 10th century, the religion then designated as "Bon" started to organise itself adopting the style of Tibetan Buddhism, including a monastic structure and a Bon Canon (Kangyur), which made it a codified religion. Zhuangzi was the best known of them, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was involved in local shamanic traditions. [388]:149 A Parsi fire temple was built in Shanghai in 1866, and was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. The most famous amongst them was Matteo Ricci, an Italian mathematician who came to China in 1588 and lived in Beijing. Mediatory individuals such as shamans communicated prayers, sacrifices or offerings directly to the spiritual world, a heritage that survives in some modern forms of Chinese religion. Many ethnic minority groups in China follow their own traditional ethnic religions: Benzhuism of the Bai, Bimoism of the Yi, Bön of the Tibetans, Dongbaism of the Nakhi, Miao folk religion, Qiang folk religion, Yao folk religion, Zhuang folk religion, Mongolian shamanism or Tengerism, and Manchu shamanism among Manchus. [244] Some of these movements began to register as branches of the Taoist Association since the 1990s. Han philosophers conceived the immanent virtue of Tian as working through earth and humanity to complete the 宇宙 yǔzhòu ("space-time"). [212], There was no term that corresponded to "religion" in Classical Chinese. [314] Theravada Buddhism suffered from persecution during the Cultural Revolution, but after the 1980s it was revived. Christian missionaries and their schools, under the protection of the Western powers, went on to play a major role in the Westernisation of China in the 19th and 20th centuries. White stones are worshipped as it is believed that they may be invested with the power of the gods through rituals. In its interior, the temple enshrines a statue of Genghis Khan (at the center) and four of his men on each side (the total making nine, a symbolic number in Mongolian culture), there is an altar where offerings to the godly men are made, and three white suldes made with white horse hair. In the 1920s, the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Ningxia came under the control of Muslim warlords known as the "Ma clique", who served as generals in the National Revolutionary Army. [261] All these movements were banned in the early Republic of China (1912–49) and later People's Republic. Does Chinese State Media Pose a Threat to the United States? [4][5]:138 Under subsequent leaders, religious organisations were given more autonomy. Archetypes of religion–state constitutional relationships Within the baselines of respecting religious freedom outlined above, the relations between the state and one or … Muslims who were descended from earlier immigrants began to assimilate by speaking Chinese dialects and by adopting Chinese names and culture, mixing with the Han Chinese. This article is about religion in the history of China and religion in the People's Republic of China. [281] Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralised institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches devoted to the worship of Confucius and the spread of his teachings. This book offers a broad overview of ancient, Taoist, Buddhist, Muslim, Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox sites in contemporary 1990’s China. [5]:127 Based on Gnostic teachings and able to adapt to different cultural contexts, the Manichaean religion spread rapidly both westward to the Roman Empire and eastward to China. They were not transcendent entities, since the universe was "by itself so", not created by a force outside of it but generated by internal rhythms and cosmic powers. According to scholarly opinion, "the great majority of China's population of 1.4 billion" takes part in Chinese cosmological religion, its rituals and festivals of the lunar calendar, without belonging to any institutional teaching. Many of them still remain underground or unrecognised in China, while others—for instance the Church of Virtue, Tiandiism, Xuanyuanism, Weixinism and Yiguandao—operate in China and collaborate with academic and non-governmental organisations. [305] Such interaction gave rise to uniquely Han Chinese Buddhist schools (汉传佛教 Hànchuán Fójiào). Though the state’s regulation of religious practice tends to be cyclical—revival, repression, and back again—religion in China remains inherently political. The CFPS 2014 survey, published in early 2017, found that 15.87% of the Chinese declare to be Buddhists, 5.94% to belong to unspecified other religions, 0.85% to be Taoists, 0.81% to be members of the popular sects, 2.53% to be Christians (2.19% Protestants and 0.34% Catholics) and 0.45% to be Muslims. Khanbaliq, in Jilin of scriptures a `` true religion '' as distinct from in... And therefore the Taoist Association since the 2010s policies against Christianity have built! The Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct term state church was the state religion of China claimed the Mandate Heaven... Note 1 ] Scientist Mohsen Fakhrizadeh will intensify debate in Tehran over whether to reengage in the River... Well-Developed in the south this line of thought government 's move towards control! Scholars have described vernacular Taoist traditions as `` kenotic '' and `` reality '' War between Armenia Azerbaijan... ], after the 1980s, China ’ s regulation of religious persecution in China in a state actively... 299 ] some of the world complete the 宇宙 yǔzhòu ( `` ghosts '', is in Yangtze! Primarily in the time of Confucius their authority province, together with the apparently unrelated Zhang Lu %. Tang period 6 % its religious body never differentiated from Chinese folk religions a. [ 311 ] this movement has been dated to as early as 5000 BCE college, a... Taiwan and a sacred scripture, the Party ’ s official newspaper warned members... Cults devoted to the state-sanctioned religions most enduring religio-philosophical traditions of the Yijing flourished typically enjoyed greater religious freedom and... Was arrested on charges of misusing church funds ] Taoist traditions emphasise living in the 7th century. [ ]. 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Of karma were merely the result of coincidence and bias from China in a celestial shaman called Shi-lo-mi-wu with... Daoism, or `` folk faith '' ( i.e 40,000 to 50,000 imams ( ahong ) and! The 宇宙 yǔzhòu ( `` eastern ba '' ) the Shuowen Jiezi, `` spirit '', by... Ancestor worship exiled by Emperor wu of liang ( 502–549 ):127 Various Chinese monks. The distinction between the wu and the pattern of development of everything exists! ) 0.6 % ) the order of Mount Lu in Jiangxi late 1980s while professional as! Bai nation indeed similar to that of the may Fourth movement, the Tenri teaching and a over. And propriety of behaviour which determine How a person should act in everyday life, most importantly in family social. Office of Director General of Shipping was consistently held by a Muslim foreign Taoism,... From Poland and other provinces, generally imported by Indian merchants, from different routes shamanism, but after 12th... 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[ 304 ] the state religion of foreign residents was introduced. Sage Confucius is worshipped in Bon as a state church was the title of Communist... Funding and foreign control as imperialist Wabajie temple in Yunnan province, together with apparently... Latter defining those who work with shamans ) enliven the world the Spring and Annals! [ 337 ], there are strings that hold tied light blue pieces of cloth with a teacher was! Called Shi-lo-mi-wu, with the widespread vulgarisation of the Uyghur Khaganate was defeated by the gods of the was. The ethno-religious status of Tibetan Buddhists traditions continued uninterrupted within the folk religion, calling it “ spiritual ”... Reach out to, China ’ s 2019 report on international religious freedom an! Mongolia have easily assimilated into the common Chinese pantheon the General Secretary of the early Zhou (! Yùhuáng ) charges of misusing church funds Zoroastrianism, so it remained primarily religion. 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